Michael
- Michael, the archangel, Vulg. Dan. 10, 13.
or Rhaga'be (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Ῥανγάβη, or Π̓αγαβή), emperor of Constantinople from A. D. 811 to 813, was the son of Theophylactus, one of the high functionaries who, together with Stauracius, conspired against the emperor Constantine VI., and the grandson of one Rhangabe, from whom he derived his surname. Michael was at once honest, handsome, and gifted with many talents, but he was of a weak character, and his amiability could not always efface the unfavourable impression which his want of energy made upon persons of stouter hearts than his. He stood in great favour with the emperor Nicephorus I. (802-811), who, by creating him master of the palace, raised him to the highest rank in the empire after the emperor and his family, and finally gave him his daughter Procopia in marriage. Stauracius, however, the son and successor of Nicephorus, was far from sharing the sentiments of his father towards the master of the palace, and feeling himself dying from the effects of a wound, received some months previously on the battle-field where his father was slain by the Bulgarians, he gave orders to blind Michael, in order that his wife Theophano, to whom lie intended to bequeath the throne, might find no obstacles at her succession. One Stephanus was charged with executing the emperor's order. He wisely refrained from doing so, and informed Michael of it. They immediately assembled the chief officers of the state, and being all willing to support Michael, they proclaimed him emperor while Stauracius was still alive (2nd of October, 811). The dying emperor implored and obtained mercy from his brother-in-law, and went to expire in a convent. The accession of Michael caused great joy among the people, though little in the army: the soldiers, however, were soon satisfied by the liberal use which the new emperor made of the rich treasures hoarded up by the late Nicephorus. Michael, a peaceful man, began his reign by restoring peace to the disturbed church, and recalling from exile Leo Armenus, a celebrated general, who now enjoyed the emperor's full confidence, for which he afterwards rewarded him by hurling his benefactor from his throne. In the spring of 812, Crum, the king of the Bulgarians, again invaded the territories of the empire. Michael set out at the head of his army to meet him, but committed the imprudence of allowing the empress Procopia to accompany him. A general discontent and symptoms of sedition among the troops were the consequences of his thoughtlessness; a woman with more than seeming authority in the camp being then an unheard of thing. Distrusting the army, the emperor hastened back to the capital, followed by a host of reckless barbarians who laid the country waste with fire and sword. At their approach, multitudes of people, mostly iconoclasts, fled before them; and a sedition in consequence broke out among the numerous iconoclasts in Constantinople, which was quelled, not without difficulty, by Leo Armenus: their leader Nicolaus was confined in a convent; and they were finally all driven out of the city and dispersed in the provinces, by order of the emperor. About the same time great numbers of Christians of all sects took refuge within the empire, flying from the dominions of the khalifs, which were then filled with commotion and civil wars. Crum, meanwhile, pursued his victorious course, and laid siege to Mesembria, whereupon he made offers of peace, which, on account of their moderation, the emperor was inclined to accept, but his councillors were for further resistance. Mesembria was now taken by assault, and the danger from the Bulgarians grew daily more alarming. In February 813, Michael once more set out to meet them, again accompanied by his wife Procopia. Her presence in the camp had the same consequences as before. Leo Armenus secretly fomented the discontent of the troops, and carried on those intrigues which led to the loss of the battle of Adrianople (22d of June, 813), the flight of Michael to Constantinople, and his deposition by the successful rebel, as is related in the life of Leo V. The deposed Michael retired into a convent, where he led an obscure, but quiet and happy life, during more than thirty years. Leo succeeded him on the throne. (Cedren. p. 48, &c. Zonar. vol. ii. p. 125, &c.; Const. Manass. p. 94; Theoph. Contin. p. 8; Author. incert. post Theoph, p. 428, &c.; Glycas, p. 286; Joel, p. 178; Genesius, p. 2, &c.; Leo Gram. p. 445, &c.: Symeon Metaphrastes, p. 402.) [W.P]
(Μιχαὴλ ὁ Τραυλός), or the "Stammerer," emperor of Constantinople, A. D. 820-829. This prince was of low origin; he was born at Amorium, and spent his earlier youth as a groom, in different stables of his native town. He afterwards entered the army, and although he was ignorant and illiterate, he met with success in his new profession, owing to his bold character and uncommon impudence. One of his superior officers esteemed him so much that he gave him his daughter Thecla in marriage. Having made the acquaintance of the celebrated Bardanes, he found numerous opportunities of distinguishing himself under the eyes of that eminent general, who accordingly promoted him, and in spite of a defect of his speech, whence his surname ὁ Τραυλος, he became conspicuous as one of the best Greek generals. The emperor Leo V. owed the fortunate issue of his conspiracy against Michael I. in a great measure to the assistance of Michael the Stammerer, and accordingly raised the latter to the highest dignities in the empire. But Michael wanted prudence, and having often severely censured the conduct of Leo, incurred the displeasure of his master. In order to get rid of him, Leo sent him into Asia as dux Orientis, but soon recalled him for fear he should kindle a rebellion. Nothing the wiser for so many apparent proofs of Leo's displeasure, Michael continued to abuse both the emperor and the empress. Vexed at being perpetually thwarted, censured, and libelled by this troublesome officer, Leo once more ordered him to proceed to Asia and inspect the troops. This time Michael refused to comply with the order, and openly joined a number of disaffected persons, who made secret preparations for depriving Leo of his crown. The plot was discovered through the zealous honesty of Hexabulus, and Michael was arraigned of high treason. Sentenced to be burnt alive in a furnace, Michael escaped death, and was raised to the throne in an almost miraculous way, as is related in the life of Leo V. (Christmas, 820). Immediately after the assassination of Leo, Michael was released from his prison, and such was the haste of his friends to proclaim him emperor and show him to the public, that they did not even wait until his fetters were taken off, but hurried him, loaded with irons, to the hippodrome, where a trembling crowd saluted him with shouts of satisfaction.
The first act of the new emperor was to castrate the four sons of Leo, but no sooner was this infamous crime committed, than the perpetrator had to defend himself against a formidable avenger of the death of Leo and the disgrace of his sons. This was Thomas, commander-in-chief of the troops in Asia, whose revolt was one of the most dangerous that ever threatened the rulers of Constantinople. A few months after raising the standard of rebellion, Thomas was master of the whole of the Byzantine possessions in Asia. He concluded an alliance with the Arabs, and was then proclaimed emperor at Antioch (821). He pretanded to be the emperor Constantine VI., who was said to have survived his excaecation, and he styled himself so, though he was not blind; but he was originally a run-away slave who had risen to eminence in the army. Having no children, he adopted an unknown youth, who was created Augustus, and then marched at the head of an army of 80,000 men, against Constantinople. His adopted son was slain in the neighbourhood of the Hellespont, and Thomas adopted another, a former monk, to whom he gave the name of Anastasius. Upon this Thomas crossed the Hellespont, and laid siege to Constantinople. Michael awaited the danger with undaunted courage. Unable to take the field against superior forces, he adopted measures to render the capital impregnable, and a bloody defeat, which Thomas suffered in 822 while leading his men to a general assault, proved that Michael had not lost all chances of success. Thomas retired into Thrace, but renewed the siege in 823, by sea and land. His fleet obtained a victory over the imperial nayy. Gregorius Pterotes, an old friend of Leo V., and a general of great experience and influence, whom Michael had banished to Samos, now left his exile, and joined the rebel ; but the emperor having meanwhile obtained several advantages, and the motley army of Thomas, which was composed of specimens of all the different nations of Hither Asia, betraying symptoms of disaffection Pterotes resolved to desert to the emperor. Afraid to appear there alone, he seduced many of the rebels to join him, and with them secretly left the camp of Thomas. But Thomas had watched him, and the two-fold traitor was stopped on his flight, defeated, and put to death. Proud of his success, Thomas endeavoured to force the Golden Horn with a fleet of 350 vessels, but Michael fell upon him with such vigour as not only to repel him, but to destroy the greater portion of his fleet. Thomas was no more successful in his assaults by land, the capital being gallantly defended by Michael, his son Theophilus, Olbienus, Catacylus, and other generals of renown; yet in spite of their valour, they could not dislodge Thomas from his lines around Constantinople, and there was just fear lest hunger should achieve what the sword was unable to accomplish. In this extremity Michael received an offer from Mortagon, king of the Bulgarians, to join him against the rebel. Michael declined the proposition, and this act shows that he was no ordinary man: he would rather stand his own chance than make common cause with an ally who would have turned against him in case of defeat, and asked for an exorbitant reward in case of success. Mortagon, however, came on his own account, and fell upon the besieging army, not so much because he wanted to help Michael as because he was desirous of plundering some one. Being defeated by the Bulgarians, Thomas raised the siege and retreated into Thrace. Michael now sallied forth, followed his enemy closely, and at last brought him to a stand. Thomas was entirely defeated; one-half of the army went over to the victor's side; and he shut himself up in Adrianople. Michael soon followed him thither, and made preparations for forcing the city to surrender through famine, which so frightened the inhabitants that they seized the rebel and dragged him to the emperor. Thomas had his hands and feet cut off, and in this state was put on an ass and paraded through the streets. Michael joined the procession, according to the barbarous custom of the time. "If you are really emperor," cried the fainting man, "have mercy on a wretch, and take my life at once !" Michael urged him to confess whether he had any accomplices at the court, and to name them. Had Thomas done so, many an innocent man might have suffered death together with as many guilty, but John Hexabulus, whose name was always prominent among the straightforward and the honest, stopped the emperor, crying out, "Will you give credit to an enemy against your own friends?" Michael felt the reproach, and desisted from further inquiries of Thomas, who was subsequently thrown on a dungheap, where he expired several days after (October, 823) The chief partizans of Thomas met with severe punishment. Thus ended a revolt, during which Michael proved he was worthy of his throne.
In 824 Michael renewed the friendly intercourse which had subsisted between his predecessors and the Western or Frankish emperors: he sent an embassy to Louis the Pious, and also wrote a letter to him, which his ambassadors presented to Louis at Rouen. It is known that the Byzantine emperors would never recognise the imperial title of the Frankish kings, and afterwards those of Germany. In the above-mentioned letter Michael consequently called Louis only "Ludovicus qui vocatus est Francorum et Longobardorum Imperator," and this the Byzantine historians consider as a great condescension. The letter is contained in Thegan's Vie de Louis le Débonnaire, and in the works of other historians. In the same year, 824, a band of Spanish Arabs, commanded by one Abuhafiz, made adescentupon Crete and conquered the island, which was henceforth called Candia, from Candax, its new capital, which was founded by the Arabs: Michael was unable to dislodge them, and the island was lost for ever. A colony of Arabs, the descendants of the followers of Abuhafiz, still inhabits a portion of Candia. Michael lost likewise the province of Dalmatia, which was taken from him by the Servians, but the greatest loss he had to suffer was that of Sicily. Euphemius governed the island for the emperor, and having met with some disappointment at the court, invited Ziadet-Allah, the third khalif of the Aglabites in Africa, to take possession of the country. Ziadet-Allah accordingly went to Sicily in 827, with a powerful fleet, and the island soon became a prey to the Arabs, and remained in their possession for upwards of two hundred years. Michael died a natural death on the first of October, 829. and was succeeded by his son Theophilus. (Cedren. p. 491, &c.; Leo Gram. p. 447, &c.; Zonar. vol. ii. p. 132, &c; Genes. p. 13, &c.; Theophan. Contin. p. 214, &c.; Symeon Metaphrastes, p. 405, &c.; Glyc. p. 287, &c.; Const. Porphyr. De Admin. Imp. 100.22 ; Const. Manass. p. 95; Joel, p. 178.) [W.P]
(Μιχαήν), emperor of Constantinople from A. D. 842 to 867, was the son and successor of the emperor Theophilus, and the grandson of Michael II. the Stammerer. He ascended the throne at the age of three, and reigned under the guardianship of his talented mother Theodora. This active princess began by re-establishing the worship of images, an undertaking in which she had to encounter intrigues of a most dangerous nature [Photius]. Her armies were less successful ; they were beaten in the Caucasus and in Asia Minor, and an expedition fitted out for the recovery of Crete from the Arabs was totally discomfited. She despatched a fleet of 300 ships with a view of conquering Egypt, but the capture and temporary possession of Damietta was the only result of it. On the other hand, she continued to be fortunate in her exertions for the orthodox church and the Christian religion in general: the Khazars were converted in 847, and a few years afterwards the Bulgarians, those hereditary enemies of Byzantium, adopted likewise the religion of Christ [Metrophanes]. But her zeal for images caused a most dangerous revolt of the Paulicians (848), who entered into an alliance with the Arabs, and baffled the efforts of the imperial armies to reduce them to obedience. Meanwhile, Michael grew up and gave proof of his wicked propensities. At the boyish age of fifteen he already led an immoral life with Eudoxia, a noble young lady, the daughter of one Ingerius, who belonged to the great family of the Martinacii; and his mother preferring under these circumstances to give him a lawful wife, he accepted with the greatest indifference Eudoxia, the daughter of Decapolita, continuing all the while his licentious intercourse with the other Eudoxia, his mistress. The principal person at the court was Theoctistus, a celebrated, though not always successful general, who incurred the jealousy of Bardas, the brother of the empress, and the displeasure of the young emperor. Michael and Bardas consequently formed a plot to make away with Theoctistus, and carried their design into effect, Michael being the first to raise his hand against his unfortunate minister. Bardas was appointed Magnus Logotheta in his stead, and he soon seized the uncontrolled direction of public affairs. The murder of Theoctistus so afflicted Theodora that she laid down her functions as regent and retired into private life (854). Michael now abandoned himself to a life of almost unparalleled profligacy, for a description of which we must refer to the graphic pen of Gibbon (vol. ix. p. 45, &c. ed. 1815).
In 856 Bardas was made Caesar; and his power being now unlimited, he caused the empress Theodora, with her daughter, to be confined in a convent. On the whole, however, Bardas was no despicable man, though his ambition was boundless. Full of talents, learning, and an enthusiastic love of the fine arts, he was zealous in promoting the arts, science and literature, which had been greatly neglected during the reign of the father and grandfather of Michael. The philosopher Leo was his principal assistant in attaining these laudable objects. Owing to the irresistible influence of Bardas, the patriarch Ignatius was deposed in 857, and the famous Photius succeeded him. In 858 the empire was involved in a great war with the Arabs. Leo commanded against them, and obtained more glory than the unworthy emperor deserved. He defeated the Arabs in several pitched battles, drove them beyond the Euphrates, crossed that river, and made several successful incursions on the eastern side of the Tigris, penetrating to the neighbourhood of Baghdad. During this time, however, the Arab general, 'Omar, laid Pontus waste. Thinking success on the battle-field an easy thing, Michael resolved to put himself at the head of his army, and marched against 'Omar; but the Arabs had been reinforced by a strong body of incensed Paulicians, and under the walls of Samosata the emperor received a severe lesson for his folly. Upwards of 6000 Greeks were taken prisoners, and among them the gallant Leo, whom the Arabs would never restore to liberty in spite of the brilliant ransom offered them. In 860 Michael paid as dearly for a second lesson in Cappadocia; and 'Omar now carried destruction over Cappadocia, Pontus, and Cilicia, whence he carried 70,000 prisoners into perpetual captivity. (862.) Either good sense or the want of his accustomed revels in the capital, or the advice of Bardas, induced Michael to put his younger brother, Petronas, then governor of Lydia and Ionia, at the head of the army; and Petronas chose for his lieutenant Nazar, governor of Galatia, whose maxim was, that a small, but good army, was better than a large, but bad one. Near Amasia they fell in with the main army of the Arabs, commanded by 'Omar. The Greeks obtained a splendid victory; 'Omar was slain; and his head was carried to Constantinople by Petronas, to whom his brother allowed the honour of a triumphal entrance. In order to commemorate the glory of his armies, and with a view of handing his name down to posterity, Michael ordered a hippodrome to be built, which surpassed everything of the kind in magnificence. Jealous of Petronas, the emperor set out in 864 for the purpose of taking the command. He had scarcely arrived in Asia when he was recalled, because a Russian fleet of 200 large barges had suddenly made its appearance in the Bosporus, and was attacking the Golden Horn. Michael hardly escaped being taken prisoner whilst crossing the Hellespont, but he was soon released from his fear, in consequence of the Russian fleet being destroyed by storm. This was the first blockade of Constantinople by the Russians, or, more correctly speaking, by the Norman nobles, who had just made themselves masters of Western Russia. By this time Michael had grown tired of the ascendancy of Bardas, and felt deeply offended at being exhorted by him to lead a better life. Whether Bardas meant this in reality or not is a matter of doubt, for he certainly wished to establish his own elevation on the ruin of Michael. Bardas was thus gradually superseded in the favour of his master by Basil the Macedonian, afterwards emperor, who married Michael's mistress, Eudoxia, in exchange for whom he surrendered his sister, Thecla, who became the emperor's mistress. Michael formed a plot with Basil to assassinate Bardas; and soon afterwards the Caesar was treacherously killed by Michael, Basil, and a band of assassins hired for the purpose (866). Thereupon Basil rose to eminence, and was proclaimed Caesar. In the same year (866) the patriarch Photius proclaimed the deposition of pope Nicholas I. The conduct of Michael continued to be so disgusting, that Basil. in his turn, remonstrated with him, and soon incurred the hatred of his master, who began to look out for some daring men who would help him in despatching the Macedonian. Of this Basil became informed, and very naturally resolved to anticipate the emperor's designs. le persuaded him to accept a supper in the house of his mother, Theodora, who, utterly unacquainted with the intention of Basil, had consented to invite her son, as a means of restoring a good understanding between the relers. As the supper degenerated into an orgy, Theodora and her daughter retired, leaving her son alone with Basil and a few more guests, who soon made the emperor so drunk, that he was obliged to lie down on a bed. In this helpless state he was murdered by a band of assassins who had been secretly introduced into Theodora's dwelling. (24th of September, 867.) Basil followed him on the throne. The reign of Michael III., however disgusting the part which he played, is one of the most interesting in Byzantine history: it is rich in events worthy of the attention of the scholar, the philosopher, the historian, the soldier, and the divine; and whoever feels more than superficial sympathy for the fate of the later Greeks will be amply rewarded by turning from this imperfect sketch to the sources from which it is taken. (Cedren. p. 533, &c.; Zonar. vol. ii. p. 152, &c. ; Leo (Gram., p. 457, &c.; Symeon Metaphrast., p. 428, &c.; Theophan. Contin. p. 92, &c.; Genes. p. 37, &c.; Joel, p. 179, &c.; Const. Manass. p. 100.) [W.P]
(Μιχαὴλ ο Παφλαγῶν), emperor of Constantinople from A. D. 1034 to 1041, was one of the younger brothers of John the Eunuch, first minister under Romanus III. and his predecessor, Constantine IX. Among the four brothers of John, who had once been a monk, Michael and Nicetas were originally moneychangers, Constantine and George eunuchs and mountebanks by profession; Stephanus, their brother-in-law, whose name will appear hereafter, was a ship's calker. When John rose to eminence he promoted Michael to the office of chamberlain to Romanus III., a post for which he was well fit, for he was stupid and handsome. Having further the advantage of being young, he pleased the empress Zoe so much, that she admitted him to her bed. The fact was reported to Romanus, who would not believe it, because he knew that Michael was subject to epileptic fits; but Zoe and her lover were afraid that he would believe it one day or other, and consequently contrived the assassination of Romanus. The day after his murder Zoe announced to the senate that she had chosen Michael for her husband, and wished him to be acknowledged as emperor. John the Eunuch being the secret promoter of these transactions, the wishes of the empress were complied with, and Michael and Zoe were proclaimed on the 11th of April, 1034. No sooner was this done than John removed Zoe from the administration of the state, by keeping her a prisoner in her palace; and as Michael was unfit to reign, he seized the supreme power without aspiring to the name. The beginning of Michael's reign was signalised by a general famine and a terrible earthquake at Jerusalem, which lasted forty days with scarcely any interruption. Upon this the barbarians invaded the territory of the empire on all sides, while the fleets of the Arabs in Sicily and Africa covered the Archipelago, and plundered the islands. John, however. succeeded in making peace with them on tolerable conditions. He also brought the Servians to submission, made peace with the Arabs in Egypt, and had the satisfaction of seeing the Arabs of Baghdad defeated under the walls of Edessa, which thee had invested in 1037. About this time a civil war among the Arabs in Sicily afforded a good opportunity of bringing back that island to the imperial sway; and Leon Opus, the governor of the Greek dominions in Southern Italy, was consequently sent over into Sicily. He defeated time Arabs several times, and returned with many captives, besides 15,000 Christian prisoners of war, which he had taken from the Mohammedans. In 1039 John equipped a powerful fleet and an appropriate army, the fleet being commanded by Stephanus, the brother-in-law of John and the emperor ; and the whole expedition by Maniaces, who was the best general in the Greek army. The Greeks were joined by a small, but gallant body of Norman auxiliaries, commanded by three sons of the chivalrous Tancred. Messina and Syracuse were taken by the Greeks, and the Arabs sustained such losses that their brethren in Africa were in great alarm. They consequently came to their relief with 50,000 men; but few of these ever returned to their native country, and thirteen towns and cities surrendered to the victorious Greeks. In 1040 a fresh army arrived from Africa, which was still more numerous than the preceding; but in a pitched battle with the Greeks and Normans, they were utterly defeated, leaving 50,000 either dead on the field, or prisoners in the hands of the victor. Sicily once more obeyed the Greek sceptre, when a base intrigue caused the loss of what had been so fairly won. Owing to the negligence of Stephanus, the Arab commander-in-chief found means to escape, with a few followers, to Africa; and Maniaces was so vexed at his flight, that in reproaching Stephanus for it, he probably forgot the degree of deference which he owed to the brother-in-law of the powerful eunuch. In order to avenge himself for the insult, Stephanus calumniated his chief at the court, and caused a warrant to be sent to Sicily for his arrest. After Maniaces had left the island, the negligence of his successors in the command, Stephanus, Doceanus, and Basilius Pediatites, caused one loss after another; and in dividing the booty of their former victories with the Normans, they behaved so unfairly, that their gallant allies not only withdrew, but attacked the Greek dominions on the continent of Italy. The Arabs suffered one more defeat at Messina; but after that met with continual success, and before the end of 1040 Sicily had again ceased to be a Byzantine province, and in Italy the Greek power was expiring under the sword of the Normans. About the same time the Bulgarians endeavoured to throw off the Greek yoke, and overran Thrace and Macedonia. Michael, forced to fly suddenly from Thessalonica, where he then held his court, left his treasury under the care of one Ibazas, a Bulgarian in the Greek service, who availed himself of the opportunity, and with his trust joined his countrymen.
Constantinople was in the greatest danger of falling into the hands of the barbarians, when, to the surprise and wonder of the whole empire, the apathetic emperor, who was besides suffering from an incurable dropsy, declared his intention of putting himself at the head of his army. In vain his friends and the empress endeavoured to persuade him to abandon his purpose: "If I have made no conquests," said he, "I will at least do my utmost to prevent losses." He was so weak that he was obliged to be raised on his horse, and every morning the troops expected that he would not see the evening; but he held bravely out, and the moral effect of his appearance upon his soldiers as well as his enemies was so great, that the former fought with the utmost bravery, while the Bulgarians were confounded before they had been defeated. After driving out the barbarians from Thrace and Macedonia, Michael penetrated into Bulgaria; and in the course of one campaign brought back that extensive country to its allegiance to the Greek emperors. The war being thus finished with glory, Michael celebrated a triumphal entry into Constantinople, and soon afterwards died, on the 10th of December, 1041. This enterprise does great credit to Michael, whose conduct gives proof of a great moral truth, that there is no man so bad but there is still something good left in him, which, under proper circumstances, will shine forth, and cause the man to do actions which, though they cannot obliterate his former conduct, will yet entitle him to our forbearance and compassion. Shortly before his end Michael chose his nephew, Michael, his future successor, who consequently succeeded him on the throne. (Cedren. p. 734, &c.; Zonar. vol. ii. p. 235, &c.; Manass. p. 124; Joel, p. 183; Glyc. p. 314, &c.) [W.P]
(Μιχαὴλ ὁ Καλαφάτης), or the "Calker," emperor of Constantinople from December, A. D. 1041, to April, 1042, was the son of Stephanus, the brother-in-law of Michael IV., who had once followed the trade of a ship's calker, whence the surname of his son. He was adopted by Michael IV. and the empress Zoe; but as he was a profligate fellow, the emperor would soon have excluded him from the throne had death left him time. The people detested Michael V., and persuaded Zoe to reign in his stead; but a few days were sufficient to make Zoe repent her ambition, and she quietly resigned in favour of her adopted son. Michael began by banishing Zoe and the eunuch John, his uncle, and committed several other imprudent acts, the consequence of which was, that the people of Constantinople rose in rebellion. A fierce battle was fought between them and the adherents of Michael, which ended in the storm of the imperial palace, and in the flight of the young emperor and his brother Constantine to the convent of Studa, where they both took the monastic habit, and continued to live many years in a quiet obscurity. Zoe and her sister Theodora were proclaimed co-empresses by the people, 21st of April, 1042. (Cedren. p. 749; Zonar. vol. ii. p. 242; Manass. p. 125; Glyc. p. 316; Joel, p. 183.) [W.P]
(Μιχαὴλ ὁ Στρατιωτικός), emperor of Constantinople from A. D. 1056 to 1057, was chosen by the empress Theodora for her successor shortly before she died ; and he succeeded accordingly on the 22d of August, 1056. His surname, "the warrior," indicates his military merits; but at the time of his elevation he was broken down by age, and his character had lost all its former energy. Theodora, a woman, had a manly spirit, but Michael the warlike had the spirit of a woman. Michael was scarcely seated on the throne when Theodosius, a cousin of the late emperor Constantine X. Monomachus, rose in revolt; but after a fierce struggle, which filled the streets of Constantinople with blood, the rebel was compelled to lay down his arms, and was fortunate to escape with mere banishment. The famous general, Catacalon, was recalled from his post as governor of Antioch, and Michael, a cousin of the emperor, was placed in his stead. Catacalon returned to the capital with disaffection in his heart, and there met a great number of his colleagues, whom the emperor had rewarded with fine speeches instead of giving more solid proofs of his gratitude for their former achievements, and all of whom shared the disaffection of Catacalon. A military conspiracy was the consequence, and a deputation was sent by the malcontents to Isaac Comnenus, who resided at Castamone, in Asia Minor, requesting him to accept the crown, which he did, after some hesitation. Michael tried to check the progress of his rival at once by intrigues and weapons, but his duplicity availed him nothing, and his arms were defeated in the battle of Hades by Isaac and Catacalon, whereupon he resigned (31st of August), and retired into a convent. (Cedren. p. 792, &c.; Zonar. vol. ii. p. 262, &c.; Manass. p. 128, 129; Glyc. p. 132.) [W.P]
Μιχαὴν ὁ Δοῦκας, (ὁ Παραπινάκης), emperor of Constantinople from A. D. 1071 to 1071, was the son of the emperor Constantine XI., Ducas, who created died in 1059, shortly after appointing his three sons, Michael, Andronicus, and Constantine, to succeed him in joint possession of the crown. On account of their tender age, their mother, Eudoxia, reigned for them; and having married Romanus Diogenes, this distinguished general enjoyed the imperial title and power till he was made a prisoner by Alp Arslan, the sultan of the Seljuks, in August, 1071. When hiscaptivitybecame known at Constantinople, Joannes Caesar caused his nephew, Michael, to be proclaimed emperor, with a view of reigning under his name. Soon afterwards Romanus returned from his captivity, but he came too late to retrieve his fate: he was seized and blinded, and died from the operation in October, 1071. Eudoxia was confined in a prison; and these atrocities were committed without Michael taking the least step to prevent them.
John, archbishop of Sida, in Pamphylia, John the Caesar, Nicephorizus, and other ministers, now governed the empire for Michael. Enraged that the ransom for which he had restored the late Romanus to liberty was not paid by Michael, sultan Alp Arslan invaded the empire in 1072. Isaac and Alexis Comnenus commanded the Greek army against him. Owing to the want of discipline of his troops, Isaac lost a battle and his liberty, but was soon ransomed by Alexis. The two brothers prepared for taking revenge, when affairs received a different turn, through the daring ambition of one Ursel, a kinsman of the kings of Scotland, and the commander of a body of European auxiliaries in the Greek service. Having made himself master of most of the strongholds and mountain passes in the anti-Taurus and portions of Armenia and Lazica, he ceased at once to fight against the Turks and to help the Greeks, intending to make himself independent in those parts. For this purpose he intrigued with John the Caesar, who joined him, and was proclaimed emperor of the Greeks by the Frankish auxiliaries. Both the Greeks and Turks looked at these proceedings with wonder, when the latter, impatient to come to blows, fell upon John and Ursel, defeated them, and made them both prisoners. Ursel soon redeemed himself, and retired into Pontus, whither he was followed by Nicephorus Palaeologus, who gained a decisive battle over him. On his flight, Ursel was again taken by the Turks. Alexis Comnenus, wishing to obtain possession of this dangerous adventurer, offered a large bribe to the Turks for his person; and having attained his ends, sent him to Constantinople (1073), where he was kept in prison.
In 1074 the Bulgarians, exasperated by the insatiable avarice of the minister Nicephorizus, attempted to throw off the Greek yoke, and offered the crown to Bodinus, the grandson of Michael, king of Servia, who accepted it, and came to their assistance with a body of his countrymen. Bulgaria was then governed by Nicephorus Carentenus, a very competent man, who had taken proper measures for quelling the revolt, when he was prevented from carrying them out by the arrival of Damianus Dalassenus, who was sent to supersede him as governor. Dalassenus owed his promotion to some court intrigue. and six weeks after his appointment had the satisfaction of seeing himself a prisoner of the Bulgarians. and his army flying through the country. Bryennius, who had been Caesar after the captivity of John, retrieved the fortune of the Greeks. Bodinus lost several battles, and fell into the hands of Bryennius, who, on the order of Michael, sent him as a state prisoner to some fortress in Syria, whence, however, the young prince escaped and returned to Servia, over which he became king after the death of his father. Bryennius likewise compelled the Servians to sue for peace; purged the Adriatic and the Ionian sea of the Norman pirates; and quelled a dangerous mutiny of some of his barbarian auxiliaries, who were headed by Nestor, the commander-in-chief of the army of observation on the Danube. His success deserved reward, but earning disgrace instead, he listened to the persuasive wishes of his numerous friends, raised the standard of rebellion, and was proclaimed emperor under the walls of Adrianople. He despatched his brother John to lay siege to Constantinople, while he continued to consolidate his authority in Thrace and Macedonia. The capital was gallantly defended by Constantine Ducas, Alexis Comnenus, and Ursel, who was restored to liberty on condition of employing his great military talents for the defence of the emperor. Meanwhile, another rebellion broke out in the East. Only ten days after Bryennius had assumed the imperial title his example was followed by Nicephorus Botaniates in Asia Minor, who advanced with an army mostly composed of Turks, and soon penetrated as far as Nicaea. At that time Constantinople had ceased to be besieged by John Bryennius, whose men were too licentious to hold out long against well-disciplined troops, commanded by the best generals of Greece, and he consequently withdrew to the head-quarters of his brother. The conduct of the emperor during this crisis was so contemptible that the approach of Botaniates created joy among the people, and caused great satisfaction to a crowd of disaffected generals and ambitious priests: they sent a deputatiom to him, inviting him formally to occupy the imperial throne; and he of course complied with their wishes. Michael, forsaken by all his adherents except Alexis and Isaac Comnenus, who stood with him to the last moment, abandoned all hopes of resisting so formidable an enemy, and without regret resigned the crown to Botaniates, on the 25th of March, 1078. The ensuing struggle between Botaniates and Bryennius belongs to the history of the former. Michael was allowed to retire into a convent, and Botaniates had so little fear of his harmless character that he made him Archbishop of Ephesus, a post for which the ex-emperor was decidedly more fit than for the throne of Constantinople. As weak-minded as his father, Michael had the misfortune to be put under the tutorship of the wellknown Michael Psellus, a learned pedant, who, instead of making the young prince fit to rule over man, by teaching him law and history, and enlarging his mind, which was already narrow enough, instructed him chiefly in grammar and rhetoric, thus creating in the young man an artificial taste for such studies, which never left him in after life, and made his mind quite unfit for the severe Ibusiness of government and legislation. While Michael was a boy Psellus was proud of him, because his pupil was more learned than other boys of his age, but when he became a man and a king, Psellus felt ashamed of him and himself, and to this feeling we must needs ascribe the circumstance that he did not extend his history to the reign of Michael, but left off with his accession (Zonar. vol. ii. p. 286, &c.; Bryen. lib. ii. iii. &c.; Scylitz. p. 850, &c.; Glyc. p. 329, &c.; Manass. p. 134, 135; Joel, p. 185.) [W.P]
(Μιχαὴλ ὁ Παλαιολόγος), emperor of Nicaea, and afterwards of Constantinople, from A. D. 1260 to 1282, the restorer of the Greek empire, was the son of Andronicus Palaeologus and Irene Angela, the granddaughter of the emperor Alexis Angelus. He was born in 1234. At an early age he rose to eminence, which he owed to his uncommon talents as much as to his illustrious birth, and to the same causes he was indebted for many a dangerous persecution. Without dwelling upon his earlier life, we need only mention that he was once obliged to take refuge at the court of the sultan of Iconium, and having subsequently been appointed governor of the distant town of Durazzo, the slander of his secret enemy followed him thither, and he was carried in chains to Nicaea. He justified himself, however, and the emperor Theodore II. Lascaris held him in higher esteem than he had ever done before. This emperor died in August 1259, leaving a son, John III., who was only nine years old, and over whom he had placed the patriarch Arsenius and the magnus domesticus Muzalon, as guardians. Neither of them enjoyed popularity, being both known for their friendship for the Latins. Nine days after the death of Theodore, while his obsequies were solemnizing in the cathedral of Magnesia, the imperial guard suddenly broke into the church, and Muzalon, his brothers, and many of his principal adherents fell victims to the military wrath. Michael Palaeologus, whom Theodore had lately appointed magnus dux, was chosen as guardian instead of Muzalon, and soon afterwards he received or gave himself the title and power of despot. Thence there was only a step to the throne, which Michael also took. He made himself master of the imperial treasury, bribed or gained the Varangian guard and the clergy, and was proclaimed emperor at Magnesia. Michael and the boy John were crowned together at Nicaea, on the 1st of January, 1260. His succession filled the Nicaean empire with joy and satisfaction. It was not so in Constantinople. Although Baldwin II. enjoyed little more than the name of an emperor and the shadow of an empire, the substance whereof was in the hands of the princes of Nicaea, Epeirus, and Achaia, he assumed a haughty tone towards Michael, and demanded the cession of those parts of Thrace and Macedonia which belonged to Nicaea, as a condition of acknowledging him as emperor. At first Michael treated the Latin ambassadors with ridicule, till they declared they would be satisfied with Thessalonica or even Seres. "Not a village !" replied Michael sternly, dismissing them with contempt; and he was right in doing so, for he had already taken proper measures for driving the Latins out of Constantinople. The ambition of Michael, the despot of Epeirus, checked him for a while in his lofty career. Seeing a child on the throne of Nicaea, and a lofty but forsaken foreigner, destitute of power, on that of Constantinople, Michael of Epeirus conceived the same plan as Michael Palaeologus, and the success of the latter at first did not at all discourage him. Things growing serious, the new emperor of Nicaea made him honourable offers in order to maintain peace between them. But the despot of Epeirus reckoned upon his alliance with Manfred, the Norman king of Sicily, and William de Villehardouin, the French prince of Achaia and the Morea, and rushed boldly into the field. At Achrida he suffered a severe defeat ; Villehardouin was taken prisoner and brought to Constantinople. The Greeks in their turn were totally beaten at Tricorypha. Little moved by the disadvantageous turn of his affairs in the West, Michael Palaeologus hastened his expedition against Constantinople, and before the end of the year 1260 Baldwin II. was shut up within his capital. Michael, however, was not strong enough to reduce the city, and returned to Nicaea. Upon this he made an alliance with the Genoese, and in 1261 sent a new army beyond the Bosporus, the progress of which he watched from his favourite residence of Nymphaeum near Smyrna. Strategopulus Caesar commanded the Greek army round Constantinople, the natural strength of which offered again such obstacles to the besiegers, that the Caesar converted the siege into a blockade, informing the emperor of the bad chances he had of speedy success. While matters stood thus, one Cutrizacus, the commander of a body of voluntary auxiliaries, was informed of the existence of a subterranean passage leading from a place outside the walls into the cellar of a house within them, and which seemed to be known only to the owner of the house. Cutrizacus immediately formed a plan for surprising the garrison by means of the passage, and after concerting measures with the commander-in-chief, ventured with 50 men through the passage into the city. His plan succeeded completely. No sooner was he within than he took possession of the nearest gate, disarmed the post, opened it, and the main body of the Greeks rushed in. The stratagem was executed in the dead of night. The inhabitants, roused from their slumber, soon learned the cause of the noise, and kept quiet within their houses, or joined their daring countrymen. The Latins dispersed in various quarters were seized with a panic, and fled in all directions, while the emperor Baldwin had scarcely time to leave his palace and escape on board of a Venetian galley, which carried him immediately to Italy. On the morning of the 25th of July, 1261, Constantinople was in the undisputed possession of the Greeks, after it had borne the yoke of the Latins during 57 years 3 months and 13 days.
A private messenger brought the news of this strange revolution to Nymphaeum, and Michael at first refused to believe it till the arrival of some officers of the Caesar dispersed all doubt: as a further token of the veracity of their account, they produced the sword, the sceptre, the red bonnet, and other articles belonging to Baldwin, who had not found time to carry them with him. Michael lost no time in repairing to Constantinople, and on the 14th of August held his triumphal entrance, saluted by the people with demonstrations of the sincerest joy. Constantinople, however, was no more what it had been. During the reign of the Latins plunder, rapine, and devastation had spoiled it of its former splendour; trade had deserted its harbour; and thousands of opulent families had abandoned the palaces or mansions of their forefathers, in order to avoid contact with the hated foreigners. To restore. re-people, and re-adorn Constantinople was now the principal task of Michael ; and, in order to accomplish his purpose the better, he confirmed the extensive privileges which the Venetian, the Genoese, and the Pisan merchants had received from the Latin emperor. Although the Nicaean emperors considered themselves the legitimate successors of Constantine the Great, the possession of Constantinople was an event of such magnitude as to suggest to Michael the idea of a new coronation, which was accordingly solemnized in the cathedral of St. Soplia. But Michael was crowned alone, without John, an evil omen for the friends of the young emperor, whose fears were but too soon realised, for on Christmas day of the same year 1261, Michael ordered his colleague to be blinded, whereupon he was sent into exile to a distant fortress. This hateful crime caused a general indignation among the people, and might have proved the ruin of Michael had he been a man of a less energetic turn of mind. The patriarch Arsenius, co-guardian to John, was irreconcileable ; he fearlessly pronounced excommunication upon the imperial criminal; and years of trouble and commotion elapsed before Michael was re-admitted into the communion of the faithful, by the second successor of Arsenius, the patriarch Joseph.
But to return to the war with the despot of Epeirus. A short time after the conquest of Constantinople the despot Michael defeated Strategopulus, and made him a prisoner. The Greeks had scarcely rallied, when a new enemy rose against them. This was Villehardouin, who had been released from his captivity on condition of ceding some of his territories, and of remaining quiet for the future. But the loss of Constantinople was such a blight to the hopes of pope Urban IV. of effecting a complete union between the Latin and the Greek churches, that he urged the European princes to undertake a crusade against the Greek schismatics, and commanded Villehardouin to commence hostilities forthwith, relieving him from the oath he had sworn, to keep peace with Michael. Villellardouin was successful by sea and land, but Michael avoided further danger by promising the pope to do his utmost in order to effect the intended union. Urban was now the first to offer himself as mediator between the belligerents, and as both the parties were tired of bloodshed, peace was soon restored (1263). In the following year the war between the emperor and Michael of Epeirus was likewise brought to an end by an honourable peace, and shortly afterwards the despot died. To Nicephorus, the eldest of his legitimate sons, who had just married Eulogia, the sister of the emperor, he left Epeirus; but the better and larger half of his kingdom, viz. Thessaly, became the share of his favourite natural son John, a warlike man, who was well fit to defend his inheritance. In 1265 Arsenius was deposed because he would not revoke the excommunication of the emperor: his adherents, the Arsenites, caused a schism which lasted till 1312. [Arsenius.]
In 1269 Michael was involved in a dangerous war with Charles, king of Sicily, who took up arms on pretence of restoring the fugitive Baldwin to the throne, and who was joined by John of Thessaly, the above-mentioned son of the despot Michael of Epeirus. The despot John, the emperor's brother, took the field against his namesake, but, owing to circumstances which it was not in his power to remove, that gallant commander of the Greeks suffered a terrible defeat (1271 ), and the prince of Thessaly, forthwith marching upon Constantinople, placed the capital in jeopardt. But the loss of Negropont and the destruction of his fleet by the Greeks compelled him to fill back. Justly afraid that the hostilities of the king of Sicily and the despot of Thessaly were only the forerunners of a general crusade of all the Latin princes against him, Michael tried to avoid the storm by at last making earnest proposals towards effecting the union of the Greek church with that of Rome. To that effect the learned Veccus, accompanied by several of the most distinguished among the Greek clergy, was sent to the council assembled at Lyon in 1274, and there the union was effected by the Greeks giving way in the much-disputed doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost, and submitting to the supremacy of the pope. The union, however, was desired only by a minority of the Greeks, and the orthodox majority accordingly did their utmost to prevent the measure from being carried out. Michael in his turn supported his policy with force. The patriarch Joseph was deposed, and Veccus appointed in his stead; cruel punishment was inflicted upon all those who opposed the union; and Greece was shaken by a religious commotion which forms a remarkable event in the ecclesiastical history of the East. As space forbids us to dwell longer upon these important transactions, we can only remark that the union was never effectually carried out, and fell entirely to the ground upon the death of Michael. The manifest duplicity and the cruelty with which the emperor behaved in this affair made him odious to his own subjects and contemptible to his new Latin friends, and the latter part of his reign was an uninterrupted series of domestic troubles and foreign wars. His dearly-bought friendship with the Latin, and especially the Italian powers, was brought to a very speedy end.
The emperor Baldwin having died, his son Philip assumed the imperial title, and succeeded in forming an alliance between pope Martin IV., Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, and the Venetians, with a view of reconquering Constantinople and dividing the Greek empire. Soliman Rossi, a French knight, commanded the allied forces, and, invading the empire from the north, met at Belgrade the Greek forces commanded by the magnus domesticus Tarcaniotes. A pitched battle ensued, in which the invaders were totally routed: the magnus domesticus made a triumphant entry into Constantinople, and all danger of a second invasion was removed. Not satisfied with the glory of his arms and the material benefit he derived from his victory, Michael resolved to take terrible revenge: he paid 20,000 ounces of gold towards equipping a Catalan fleet with which king Peter of Arragon was to attack Sicily, and the " Sicilian Vespers," in which 8,000 Frenchmen were massacred, and in consequence of which Sicily was wrested from Charles of Anjou and united with Arragon, were in some degree the work of Michael's fury.
In the autumn of the same year (1282) Michael marched against John, the unruly prince of Thessaly, but, before any thing serious had been done, he fell ill, and died on the 11th of December, 1282, at the age of 58, leaving the renown of a successful but treacherous tyrant. His son Andronicus II. succeeded him. (Pachymer. lib. i.--vi.; Niceph. Gregor. lib. iv.--v.; Acropol.100.76, &c.; Phranz. lib. i.) [W.P]
the son of Andronicus II., was associated with his father in the throne of Constantinople, but died in the lifetime of his father. An account of him is given under Andronicus II. [W.P]
(Μιχαήλ), Byzantine writers.
1. Alexandrinus, patriarch of Alexandria in the middle of the ninth century. Works De Unitate Ecclesiae
He wrote in A. D. 869 or 870 De Unitate Ecclesiae, a letter addressed to the emperor Basil I., printed Graece et Latine in the 8th vol. of Labbe's Concil. and in the 5th vol. of Hardouin's Concil. Further Information
Cave, Hist. Lit. ad an. 869; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. xi. p. 189.
2. Anchialus. [Anchialus.]
3. Apostolius, was one of those Greeks who contributed to the revival of learning in Italy, where he settled about 1440.
He was an intimate friend of Gemistus Pletho, and an adherent of the Platonic philosophy, two circumstances which, together with his own merits, caused him to be well received by Cardinal Bessarion in Italy. The friendship, however, did not last long, and poor Michael retired to Candia, where he got a livelihood by teaching children and copying MSS. There he died, some time after 1457, for in that year he wrote a panegyric on the emperor Frederic III. Works
His principal works are: 1. A defence of Plato against Theodore Gaza
extant in MS. in the Vienna library. 2. Menexenus,
a dialogue on the Holy Trinity, investigating whether the Mohammedans and Jews are right, in believing a Mono-Deus; or the Christians, in believing a Deus Trin-unus: extant in MS. in the Vienna library. 3. Oratio consultoria ad Socerum sibi irascendum cum ad secundas transiret nuptius
extant in the Bodleian. 4. Appellatio ad Constantinum Palaeologum ultimum Imperatorem
5. Oratio ad Ioannem Argyropulum. 6. Epistolae XLV.These letters are extremely important for the history of the writer's time, as Lambecius asserts, who perused all or most of them, and it is to be regretted that none of them are printed. The first is addressed to Gemistus, the others to Manuel Chrysolaras, Chalcocondylas, Argyropulus, Bessarion, and other celebrated men of the time. They are extant in MS. in the Bodleian; some of them are also to be found in the Vatican and at Munich. 7. Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III.
written about or perhaps in 1457. Editions
it was published Graece et Latine by Freherus in the second vol. of his Rerum German. Script. 8. Oratio Funebris in Laudem Bessarionis
does credit to the heart of Michael, for it seems that the cardinal had not behaved very generously towards the poor scholar. Still it is very questionable whether our Michael is the author of it: Bessarion died in 1472; and as Michael, previously to leaving Constantinople, in or before 1440, had enjoyed, during many years, the friendship of Gemistus, whose name became conspicuous in the very beginning of the 15th century, and who was a very old man in 1441, he must have attained a very great age if he survived Bessarion. 9. Disceptatio adversus eos qui Occidentales Orientalibus superiores esse contendebant,
extant in MS. in the Bodleian. 10. De Figuris Grammaticis
which Leo Allatius esteemed so highly that he intended to publish it, but was unfortunately prevented. 11. An Etymologica Dictionary
doubtful whether still extant; a work of great importance. 12. Ἰωνία, Violets
a pleasing title given to a collection of sentences of celebrated persons. Editions
Arsenius of Malvasia made an extract of it, Ἀποφθέγματα, Rome, 83vo, which he dedicated to pope Leo X., who reigned from 1513 to 1522. 13. Συναγωγὴ Παροιμιῶν
containing 2027 Greek proverbs, a very remarkable little work which soon attracted the notice of the lovers of Greek literature: it was dedicated by the author to Casparus Uxama, or Osmi, a Spanish prelate, with whom Michael met at Rome. Editions
The Greek text by Hervagius, Basel, 1558, 8vo.; the text, with a Latin version and valuable notes, by P. Pantinus and A. Scholl, Leyden, 1619, 4to.; also cum Clavi Homerica, by George Perkins. Further Information
Cave, Hist. Lit. ad an. 1440; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. xi. p. 189.
4. Attaliata. [Attaliata.]
5. Balsamon, Magnae Ecclesiae Constantino politanae Magnus Chartophylax et Archidiaconus, was probably a native of Constantinople. He was one of the Greek deputies sent in 1438 to the council of Florence, discovered the secret intrigues of the Latins, and prognosticated the ultimate fate of the union of the two churches to which he subscribed reluctantly. He wrote and addressed to the emperor Joannes Palaeologus Anaphora Cleri Constantinopolitani, of which Leo Allatius gives a few fragments in his work De Consensu utriusque Ecclesiae. (Cave, Hist. Lit. ad an. 1440; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. x. p. 373, note.)
6. Cerularius, was chosen patriarch of Constantinople in 1043, and made himself notorious in ecclesiastical history by his violent attacks upon the Latin church. He caused so much scandal that pope Leo IX. sent Cardinals Humbert and Frederic with Peter, archbishop of Amalfi, to Constantinople in order to persuade Cerularius to a more moderate conduct. Their efforts were not only unsuccessful, but they were treated with such abuse that Humbert excommunicated the virulent patriarch. Cerularius in his turn excommunicated the three legates, and he caused the name of Pope Leo IX. to be erased from the diptychs. In 1057 he prevailed upon the emperor Michael Stratioticus to yield to his successful rival, Isaac Comnenus, whose interest he took care of for some time. Differences, however, soon broke out between them; and when he was once quarrelling with Isaac about the respective authority of the church and the state, he impudently cried out, "I have given you the crown, and I know how to take it from you again." Banishment was his due reward, and Isaac was about to remove him from his see when death removed him from the earth (1058). Works
Cerularius wrote: 1. Decisio Synodica de Nuptüs in Septimo Gradu Editions
printed Greek and Latin in the third book of Leunclavius, Jus Graeco-Roman. 2. De Matrimonio prohibit Editions
fragments in the fourth book of Leunclavius, Jus Graeco-Roman. 3. Epistolae II. ad Petrum Antiochenum Editions
Greek and Latin, in the second vol. of Cotelerius, Eccles. Graec. Monument. 4. De Sacerdotis Uxore Adulterio polluta Editions
in Cotelerius, Patres Apotl. 5. Σημείωμα s. Edictum Synodale adversus Latinos de Pittacia seu De Excommunicatione a Latinis Legatis in ipsum ab ipso in Legatos vibrata, anno 1054, die septimo Junü factum Editions
Graece et Latine in Leo Allatius, De Libr. Eccles. Graecis. 6. Homilia Editions
Ed. Graece et Latine by Montfaucom, under the title Epistola Synodi Nicaeanae ad Sanctam Alexandriae Ecclesiam, Paris, 1715, fol. Letters
There are, farther. extant in MS. fragments of several letters, as Contra Rebelles Abbatos, Contra Armenios, De Homiculio facto in Ecclesia, De Episcoporum Judicüs, &c. Further Information
Cave, Hist. Lit. ad an. 1043; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. xi. pp. 195, 196.
8. Grammaticus, perhaps the same as Michael Psellus. Works Epigramma in Agathiam
He wrote Epigramma in Agathiam. Editions
This was printed in the third vol. of Brunck's Analecta Vet. Poet. Graec., in the third vol. of Jacobs' Anthologia Graeca, and in some other collections. Further Information
Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. iv. p. 482, vol. xi. p. 204.
9. Monachus, ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae presbyter and Ignatii patriarchae syncellus. Works
He wrote: 1. Encomium Ignatii Patriarchae
Ignatius died in 877. Editions
Edited Greek and Latin, in a very mutilated form, by Raderus in his Acta Concilü, Ingolstadt, 1604, 4to., also in the eighth vol. of the Concilia. 2. Encomium in Angelicorum Ordinum Ductores, Michaelem et Gabrielem.
3. Encomium in gloriosum Christi Apostolum Philippum. 4. Perhaps Vita et Miracula Sti Nicolai. 5. Vita Theodori Studitae.The life of Theodore Studita, as well as one or two of the other productions, were perhaps written by another Michael Monachus, a contemporary and survivor of Studita who died as early as 826. The author of this life was a very incompetent writer. Editions
Baronius gives some fragments of this in his Annales ad an. 795 and 826.
The complete text with a Latin translation was published by Jacobus de la Baune in the fifth vol. of Opera Sirmondi, Paris, 1696, fol. Further Information
Cave, Hist. Lit. ad an. 878; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. xi. p. 205.
10. Phile. [Phile.]
11. Prochirus, of uncertain age, the author of Dramation, Musarum et Fortunae Querimonium continens, et alia, ed. Graec. et Lat. F. Morellus, Paris, 1593, 1598, 8vo.; also in Maittaire's Miscellanea Graecor. aliquot Scriptor. Carmina, London, 1722, 4to. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. xi. p. 206.)
12. Presbyter, lived in the 9th century. Works De Constructione Partium Orationis
He wrote De Constructione Partium Orationis s. Methodus de Orationis Constructione, extant in MS. in Milan, and in the Escurial libraries, which is probably the same as Περὶ συντάξεως τῶν ῥημάτων, ascribed to Georgius Lecapenus. Editions
It was published under the name of Lecapenus, together with Theodoras Gaza at Florence, 1515, 1520, 8vo.; with others, ibid. 1526, 8vo.; and in Grammatici Graec. Venice, 1525, 8vo. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. vi. p. 133.)
13. Psellus. [Psellus.]
14. Sbirus. [Sbirus.]
15. Sophianus. [Sophianus.]
16. Syncellus. [Syncellus.]
17. Synodensis, or more correctly Synnadensis, bishop of Synnada or Synnas, in Phrygia, of uncertain age, wrote Expositio Maximorum Miraculorum SS. Archangelorun. (Leo Allatius, De Symeonibus, p. 107.)
18. Thessalonicensis, magister rhetorum and magnae ecclesiae protecdicus, lived about 1160, and embraced the wide-spread Bogomilian heresy, for which he suffered severe persecutions till he returned to the orthedox church. He wrote Confessio Brevis, extant in Leo Allatius's De Consensü utriusque Ecclesiae, lib. 2. c.12. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. xi. p. 702.) [W.P]
3. Michael Constantinus Psellus the younger, a far more celebrated person, flourished in the 11th century of our era. He was born at Constantinople, of a consular and patrician family, A. D. 1020. When five years old he was placed in the hands of a tutor, to whom, however, he is said to have been far less indebted than to his own prodigious industry and talent. He afterwards studied at Athens, and excelled in all the learning of the age; so that he was a proficient at once in theology, jurisprudence, physics, mathematics, philosophy, and history. He taught philosophy, rhetoric, and dialectics, at Constantinople, where he stood forth as almost the last upholder of the falling cause of learning. The emperors honoured him with the title of Prince of the Philosophers (Φιλοσόφων ὕπατος), and did not disdain to use his counsels, and in effecting their elevation he even had a share. The period during which he thus flourished at Constantinople extends over the reigns of Constantinus Monomachus (A. D. 1042-1054), his empress Theodora (to A. D. 1056), and Michael Stratonicus, who succeeded Theodora, and who entrusted Psellus with a conciliatory mission to Isaac Comnenus, whom the soldiers had saluted emperor in A. D. 1057. He still remained in favour with both these emperors, and with Constantinus Ducas, who succeeded Comnenus in A.D. 1060, and also with his successor Eudocia, and her three sons. When Romanus Diogenes, whom Eudocia had married, was also declared emperor (A. D. 1068), Psellus was one of his counsellors ; but three years afterwards he was the chief adviser, among the senators, of the measure by which Diogenes was deposed, and Michael VII. Ducas, the son of Constantinus Ducas, elected in his place, A. D. 1071. Michael was the pupil of Psellus himself, by whom he had been so thoroughly imbued with the love of letters, that, in spite of the remonstrances of Psellus, he devoted himself to study and writing poetry, to the neglect of his imperial duties. To this folly Michael added the ingratitude of permitting his tutor to be supplanted in his favour by Joannes Italus, a man of far less talent, but an eloquent sophist, and a great favourite with the nobles, in discussions with whom the emperor spent his time. The deposition of Michael Ducas (A. D. 1078) was followed by the fall of Psellus, who was compelled by the new emperor, Nicephorns Botanias, to retire into a monastery; and in his dishonoured old age he witnessed the elevation of his rival to the title of Prince of the Philosophers, which he imself had so long held, and which the next emperor, Alexius Comnenus, conferred upon Joannes, in A. D. 1081. Psellus appears to have lived at least till A. D. 1105; some suppose that he was still alive in 1110, the thirtieth year of Alexius Comnenus. Works
He was not only the most accomplished scholar, but also the most voluminous writer of his age. His works are both in prose and poetry, on a vast variety of subjects, and distinguished by an eloquence and taste which are worthy of a better period.
A great number of the works of Psellus are still unedited. Of those which have been printed there is no complete collection. Printed Works
In 1532 a work was printed at Venice, in 8vo., and reprinted at Paris in 1541, in 12mo., entitled Pselli Introductio in et Philosophiae Modus : Synopsis quinque vocum et decem Categoriarum, together with similar works by Blemmidas and Georgius Pachymerius. With this exception, all his works have been published singly, as follows :-- 1. Περὶ ἐνεργείας δαιμόνων διάλογος, de Operatione Daemonum Dialogus Editions
Gr. ed. G. Gualminus, Par. 1615, 8vo. ; carelessly reprinted, Kilon. 1688, 12mo. 2. De Lapidum Virtutibus, Editions
Gr. Lat. ed. Phil. Jac. Maussacus, Tolos. 1615, 8vo.; re-edited by Jo. Steph. Bernardus, Lugd. Bat. 1745, 8vo. (It has been already stated that some scholars attribute these works to the elder Psellus.) 3. Synopsis Oryani Aristotelici, Editions
Gr. Lat. ed. a Elia Ehingero F., Aug. Vind. 1597, 8vo. 4. Mathematical Works, namely, (1) complete: Pselli Opus in quattuor Mathematicas Disciplinas, Arithmeticam, Musicam, Geometriam, et Astronomliam, ed. Astronomiam, ed. Arsenio, Archiepisc. Monembas. Gr. Venet. 1532, 8vo.; reprinted, Paris. 1545, 12mo.; re-edited by G. Xylander, Basil. 1556, 8vo.; (2) separate portions ; Geometria, stud. M. C. Meureri, Lips. 1589, 8vo.; περὶ ἀριθμητικῆς σύνοψις, Arithmetices Compendium, Gr. Paris. in off. Wechel. 1538, 4to.; reprinted, with a Latin version, Paris. 1545, 8vo.; Σύνοψις μονσικῆς, Compendium Musices, Gr. Paris. ap. A. Wechel. 1556, 4to. 5. Synopsis Legum, versibus iambis et politicis,
containing the Carmina politica de Dogmate, Carmina de Nomuocanone, and Tractatus de septen sacris synodis oeculoenicis Editions
Gr. Lat. per Fr. Bosquetum, Paris. 1632, 8vo.; reedited, with the omission of the last of the three works, by Corn. Sibenius, in the Novus Thesaurus Juris civilis et canonici of Ger. Meermannus, vol. i. pp. 37, &c., 1571, fol.; again re-edited by L. H. Zeucherus, Lips. 1789, 8vo.; reprinted in the Auctores Graeci Minores, vol. ii. Lips. 1796. 6. Διδασκαλία παντοδαπή (sive de onmnifaria doctrina capita et quaestiones ac responsiones CXCIII. ad Michaelem Ducam Imp. Const. Editions
Gr. Lat. in the old edition of Fabric. Biblioth. Graec. vol. v. pp. 1, &c., Hamb. 1705, 4to. 7. Εἰς τὰς ἁγίας ἑπτὰ συνόδους (de Septem Synodis Editions
Gr., with the epigrams of Cyrus Theodorus Prodromus, Basil. 1536, 8vo. 8. Paraphrasis in Cantica Canticorum, Editions
first edited, with the similar works of Eusebius, Polychronius, and others, by J. Meursius, Lugd. Bat. 1617, 4to.; reprinted in the works of Meursius, vol. viii. pp. 289, &c., Florent. 1746, fol.; also in the Paris Bibliotheca Patrum, vol. xiii. pp. 681, foll. 9. Capita XI. de S. Triatate et persona Chzristi, Editions
Gr. Lat., edited by J. Wegelinus, with the Argumenta contra Nestorianos of Cyril of Alexandria and John of Damascus, Aug. Vind. 1611, 8vo.; another edition, 1698, fol. 10. Celebres Opiniones de Anima, Editions
Gr. Lat. with Qrigen's Philocalia, Paris, 1624, 4to. 11. De Vitis et Virtutibus, et Allegoriae, Editions
in iambic verse, Gr., stud. Arsenii, in the Praeclara dicta philosophorum, Romae (no date), 8vo.; reprinted, with the Allegories of Heracleides Ponticus, Basil. 1544, 8vo. 12. Eneomium. in Metaphraslem Domium Symeonem, Editions
Gr. Lat., in the De Symneonum Scriptis Diatriba of Leo Allatius, Paris, 1664, 4to. 13. Judicium de Heliodori et Achillis Tatii fabulis amnatorüs, Editions
Gr., edited by D'Orville, in the Miscellan. Observe. Crit. in Auctores reteres et recentiores, vol. vii. torn. iii. pp. 366, &c. Paris, 1743, 8vo. 14. Carmen Iambicum in depositionem Joh. Chrysostost., Editions
in the Excerpta Graecorum et Rhetorum of Leo Allatius, Romae, 1641, 8vo. 15. Patria, seu Origines Urbis Constantinopolitanae, i. e. de Antiquitatibus Constantinopolitanis Libri IV. Editions
Gr. Lat., edited by Anselmus Bandurius, in his Imperium Orientale, Paris, 1711, repr. Venet. 1729, folio. 16. Scholia in Zoroastrem, Editions
printed with various editions of the Oracula Magica of Zoroaster, 1599. &c. 17. Annotationes in Gregorium, Editions
printed with some editions of Gregory Nazianzen, 1609, 1690. 18. Παράφρασις εἰς τὸ περὶ ἑρμηνίας (De Interpretatione Editions
In the Aldine Editio Princeps of Ammonius Hermeas, 1503, folio. (Hoffmann, Lexicon Bibliogr. Script. Graecor. s. v.) Unedited Works of Psellus
For a list of the numerous unedited works of Psellus, see Fabricius and Cave. Epigram in the Greek Anthology ascribed to Psellus
The Greek Anthology contains one epigram ascribed to Psellus, which, in the absence of any further information, may be ascribed to the younger Michael Psellus, as the most celebrated person of the name. (Brunck, Anal. vol. iii. p. 127; Jacobs, Anth. Graec. vol. iv. p. 97, vol. xiii. p. 918.)